Multi-objective Optimal Trade-off Between V2G Activities and Battery Degradation in Electric Mobility-as-a-Service Systems

This paper presents optimization models for electric Mobility-as-a-Service systems, whereby electric vehicles not only provide on-demand mobility, but also perform charging and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) operations to enhance the fleet operator profitability. Specifically, we formulate the optimal fleet operation problem as a mixed-integer linear program, with the objective combining of operational costs and revenues generated from servicing requests and grid electricity sales. Our cost function explicitly captures battery price and degradation, reflecting their impact on the fleet total cost of ownership due to additional charging and discharging activities. Simulation results for Eindhoven, The Netherlands, show that integrating V2G activities does not compromise the number of travel requests being served. Moreover, we emphasize the significance of accounting for battery degradation, as the costs associated with it can potentially outweigh the revenues stemming from V2G operations.