Influence of impurities on the use of Fe-based powder as sustainable fuel

Sustainable energy production, inherently transient and non-uniformly distributed around the world, requires the rapid development of sustainable energy storage technologies. Recently, pure iron powder was proposed as a high-energy density carrier. While promising, challenges are faced, such as nanoparticle emissions, micro-explosions or cavitation. In this work, a screening of the impact of the most common impurities in iron sources on these mechanisms was conducted through purely thermodynamic simulations. Two idealized models were considered to obtain a range of plausible flame temperatures and emitted gases when considering a purely diffusive regime in standard conditions and stoichiometric air–fuel mixture. The flame temperature and iron evaporation are increasing with the specific energy. A strong evaporation of C, S, Mo, Cu and P is also expected. Most impurities are predicted to decrease cavitation, except for Mn and MnO. The regeneration process by hydrogen-based direct reduction in fluidized bed reactors is also discussed. MgO and CaO are the most promising additions in terms of reducing nanoparticles and porosities, as well as to improve the fluidization and reduction kinetics of the combusted products. The potential of Fe powder as sustainable fuel, already very promising, could be further improved by the addition of selectively chosen impurities. This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Sustainable metals: science and systems'.